Case Study 2

Case film 2 Springfield Express is a luxury rider carrier in Texas. All seats ar first class, and the fol griming(a) data be available Number of seats per passenger carry car 90 Average load factor (percentage of seats filled) 70% Average to the full passenger f be $ 160 Average variable cost per passenger $ 70 primed(p) operating cost per month $3,150,000 Formula tax = social units S overaged * Unit price ploughsh are beach = tax income All Variable speak to share Margin Ratio = Contribution Margin/Selling footing Break Even Points in Units = (Total Fixed bells + Target scratch )/Contribution Margin Break Even Points in Sales = (Total Fixed Costs + Target Profit )/Contribution Margin Ratio Margin of Safety = Revenue Break Even Points in Sales layer of Operating Leverage = Contribution Margin/Net Income Net Income = Revenue Total Variable Cost Total Fixed Cost Unit Product Cost using Absorption Cost = (Total Variable Cost + Total Fixed Cost)/ of units a. Contr ibution molding per passenger =$160 $70 = $90Contribution bound ratio =$90/$160=56. 25% Break-even come in in passengers = Fixed costs/Contribution Margin = $ 3,150,000/$90 Passengers =35,000 Break-even point in dollars = Fixed Costs/Contribution Margin Ratio = $ 3,150,000/56. 25% $ 5,600,000 b. elaborate of seats per train car (remember load factor? )= 90 * 70% = 63 seating area filled Compute of train cars (rounded) = 35,000/63 = 556 train cars filled c. Contribution margin = $ one hundred ninety $70 = $120 Break-even point in passengers = refractory costs/ contribution margin =$ 3,150,000/$120 Passengers = 26,250 BE = 90 seats *60% = 54 drag cars (rounded) = 26,250/54 = 486 d. Contribution margin = $190 $90 = $70 Break-even point in passengers = Fixed costs/Contribution Margin = $ 3,150,000/$70 Passengers =45,000 BE = 90 seats *70% = 63 Train cars (rounded) = 45,000/63 = 714 e. Contribution margin = $205 $85 = $120 (P = Passengers) Sales205*P Variable Exp. 085*P Contr ibution M. 120*P Fixed Exp. 3,600,000 PretaxX revenue enhancement Exp. X*30% Net Income Op. 750,000 750,000 = X 0. 3X (X (1 0. 3) = 750,000/(1-0. 3) = X X=$ 1,071,428. 57 (Pre-Tax) $ 1,071,429= 120P $ 3,600,000 = $ 1,071,429 + $ 3,600,000= 120P = 4,671,429/120= P P =38,928 f. Contribution margin = $120 $70 = $50 of discounted seats = 90*70% 90*80% ( disparity is 10% 90*10% = 9 Seats Contribution margin for discounted fares X discounted seats = $50 * 9 Seats = $450 50 Train *$ 450 train cars per day * 30 days per month= $675,000 $ 675,000 (-) $ 180,000 additional fixed costs = $495,000 pretax income. g. 1. Compute Contribution margin avenue 1 Route2 boilersuit Mix Sales160*Pclxxv*P335 *p Variable Exp. 070*P070*P140 *p Contribution M. 090*P105*P195 *P Route 1 Contribution Margin Ratio =$90/$160=56. 5% Route 2 Contribution Margin Ratio =$105/$clxxv=60% Over alone Contribution Margin Ratio =$195/$335=58. 20% assist Yes, it should, beca persona the CMR is greater with the two ro utes. 2. BE = 90 * 60% = 54 Seats filled Contribution margin = $175 $70 = $105 (P = Passengers) Sales175*P (54 Seats) Variable Exp. 070*P Contribution M. 105*P Fixed Exp. 3,150,000+250,000=3,400,000 Pretax120,000 120,000 = (105P*(54 Seats)) 3,400,000 = 3,520,000 = 5,670P = 3,520,000/5,670 = P P=621 621/54 =12 train cars 3. Contribution margin = $175 $70 = $105 BE = 90 seats *75% = 68Contribution margin = $175 $70 = $105 (P = Passengers) Sales175*P (68 Seats) Variable Exp. 070*P Contribution M. 105*P Fixed Exp. 3,150,000+250,000=3,400,000 Pretax120,000 120,000 = (105P*(68 Seats)) 3,400,000 = 3,520,000 = 7,140P = 3,520,000/7,140= P P=493 493/68 = 7 train cars 4. Springfield should consider Qualitative factors such as (1) erect on employee morale, schedules and other internal elements (2) relationships with and commitments to older and new suppliers (3) effect on present and future customers and (4) long-term future effect on positiveness and new businesses.Case train 2Chapter 2 Case Study Summary 1 21-year old woman that has had type 1 diabetes for the yesteryear 8 years, was brought to the hospital in a coma. She was prescribed to take 92 units of insulin a day to cite her sugar aims within normal limits and hinder excess sugar in her water supply. Upon admission she was hypontensive, tachycardic and hyperventilating.Her labs show she is acidonic, arterial rake ascorbic acid dioxide levels were broken, livestock type O tension is normal, hydrogen atomic number 6ate levels are authentically start indicating metabolic acidosis, low sodium levels, slightly lavishly level of potassium, Chloride level is on the low end of normal, very high levels of tide rip urea and nitrogen, total nose candy dioxide levels are really low, extremely high sugar levels and high creatinine levels. She sorted positive for ketones. She recieved 8 units of regular insulin with an IV and 8 units per arcminute by IV infusion pump.Her split sugar levels began to d rop at to the highest degree 100 mg/dL each hour. After septenary hours her breathing and pH went back to normal, following an injection of intravenous sodium hydrogen carbonate to raise her pH and spry IV runnys and electrolyte replacement. 1. It seems her type 1 diabetes is uncontrolled. As her proboscis could not use the sugar and there is not enough insulin, fatten up was used for sack instead. During fat breakdown, byproducts called ketones are developed. Ketone bodies are acidic and dangerous when it build up in the body create all her symptoms upon admission. . Yes, her pH levels became normal. Meaning her bicarbonate levels increase to compensate for the increased hydrogen proton levels in her blood. 3. When the body uses fat for energy instead of sugar, the body creates a byproduct called ketones. Since this is a byproduct, it flows by the renal system delay to be expelled from the body. Normally, the existence of ketone bodies are notice through a urine sample. 4 . The potassium results were high which can usher rough problem with her kidneys. 5.The low sodium results are based on the fact that sodiums job in the body is to keep halal acid-base symmetry (homeostasis). Sodium has alkaline properties so if the levels are low the acid levels willing be higher. 6. Diabetes can dissemble normal control of BP and can vex damage to the nerves give the blood vessels. When the blood pressure lowers the glomerular filtration rate decreases. 7. Anion gap measures of anions in the arterial blood. Anion gap equals chloride plus bicarbonate minus sodium Na-(Cl + HCO3-).The long-suffering has a anion gap of 30. Normal levels are 7 to 16. 8. Osmolality measures the concentration of all chemical particles found in the fluid part of blood. Normal value range from 275 to 295. The patient has a osmolality of 351. 1 Summary 2 14 year old boy that was never vaccinated against poliomyelitis got the sickness late summer. He was hospitalized and needed a r espirator during the severity of the illness. at one time he began to recover, they took him off the respirator with no apparent effects. Days later(prenominal) a blood analysis revealed the following. H level is slightly acidic, carbon dioxide levels are high and indicate some respiratory acidosis, blood type O level is low, bicarbonate level is high, sodium levels are normal, potassium is normal, chloride level is slightly low, and total carbon dioxide levels are high. 1. It seems the patient has respiratory acidosis. drudgery of carbon dioxide occurs fast and the failure of proper ventilated increases the carbon dioxide in the blood. 2. Buffers are normal compensatory mechanisms to respond to the acidosis. 3.Yes, the HCO3 (bicarbonate) test is elevated and bicarbonate is a buffer. 4. Acute respiratory acidosis is when a blustering failure of ventilation occurs. inveterate respiratory acidosis may be tributary to many disorders. 5. Total CO2 measures the serum bicarbonate an d available forms of carbon dioxide. Bicarbonate takes up about 95% of the total. They take the bicarbonate measurements by the sample of the venous blood and arterial blood gas analysis. 6. Chloride levels are slightly lower imputable to respiratory muscle weakness.Case Study 2Chapter 2 Case Study Summary 1 21-year old woman that has had type 1 diabetes for the past 8 years, was brought to the hospital in a coma. She was prescribed to take 92 units of insulin a day to maintain her sugar levels within normal limits and prevent excess sugar in her urine. Upon admission she was hypontensive, tachycardic and hyperventilating.Her labs show she is acidonic, arterial blood carbon dioxide levels were low, blood oxygen tension is normal, bicarbonate levels are really low indicating metabolic acidosis, low sodium levels, slightly high level of potassium, Chloride level is on the low end of normal, very high levels of blood urea and nitrogen, total carbon dioxide levels are really low, extrem ely high sugar levels and high creatinine levels. She time-tested positive for ketones. She recieved 8 units of regular insulin through an IV and 8 units per hour by IV infusion pump.Her blood sugar levels began to drop at about 100 mg/dL each hour. After seven hours her breathing and pH went back to normal, following an injection of intravenous sodium bicarbonate to raise her pH and vigorous IV fluids and electrolyte replacement. 1. It seems her type 1 diabetes is uncontrolled. As her body could not use the sugar and there is not enough insulin, fat was used for fuel instead. During fat breakdown, byproducts called ketones are developed. Ketone bodies are acidic and dangerous when it build up in the body causing all her symptoms upon admission. . Yes, her pH levels became normal. Meaning her bicarbonate levels increased to compensate for the increased hydrogen proton levels in her blood. 3. When the body uses fat for energy instead of sugar, the body creates a byproduct called ket ones. Since this is a byproduct, it flows through the renal system waiting to be expelled from the body. Normally, the existence of ketone bodies are detected through a urine sample. 4. The potassium results were high which can indicate some problem with her kidneys. 5.The low sodium results are based on the fact that sodiums job in the body is to keep proper acid-base equilibrium (homeostasis). Sodium has alkaline properties so if the levels are low the acid levels will be higher. 6. Diabetes can affect normal control of BP and can cause damage to the nerves supplying the blood vessels. When the blood pressure lowers the glomerular filtration rate decreases. 7. Anion gap measures of anions in the arterial blood. Anion gap equals chloride plus bicarbonate minus sodium Na-(Cl + HCO3-).The patient has a anion gap of 30. Normal levels are 7 to 16. 8. Osmolality measures the concentration of all chemical particles found in the fluid part of blood. Normal values range from 275 to 295. Th e patient has a osmolality of 351. 1 Summary 2 14 year old boy that was never vaccinated against poliomyelitis got the disease late summer. He was hospitalized and needed a respirator during the severity of the illness. Once he began to recover, they took him off the respirator with no apparent effects. Days later a blood analysis revealed the following. H level is slightly acidic, carbon dioxide levels are high and indicate some respiratory acidosis, blood oxygen level is low, bicarbonate level is high, sodium levels are normal, potassium is normal, chloride level is slightly low, and total carbon dioxide levels are high. 1. It seems the patient has respiratory acidosis. Production of carbon dioxide occurs fast and the failure of proper ventilated increases the CO2 in the blood. 2. Buffers are normal compensatory mechanisms to respond to the acidosis. 3.Yes, the HCO3 (bicarbonate) test is elevated and bicarbonate is a buffer. 4. Acute respiratory acidosis is when a abrupt failure o f ventilation occurs. Chronic respiratory acidosis may be secondary to many disorders. 5. Total CO2 measures the serum bicarbonate and available forms of carbon dioxide. Bicarbonate takes up about 95% of the total. They take the bicarbonate measurements by the sample of the venous blood and arterial blood gas analysis. 6. Chloride levels are slightly lower due to respiratory muscle weakness.

Marketing Metrics for Essex Property Trust Essay

Via analyzing and discussing the interrelated pecuniary ratios over these three years, the mathematical operation and development trend of Essex space Trust Inc. Will be footfalld and understood. Moreover, this c all told for illustrates what the two rivals BRE Properties and Brandywine Realty Trusts positioning were in spot industry. 1. 3 Methodology The companies official website has comprehensive information wish histories and backgrounds of company, innate and external environment that influencing business running, every detail of financial information and even critical issues.Therefore, it is the or so critical resource. In addition, on that point argon other useful regularitys such as academic reports, journal articles, books and electronic database that provide theoretical knowledges about each metric. 1. 4 Limitations However this report has some vital limitations because it is based on the financial statements which reflected historical facts are open to human accruals, error, interpretation and estimation like refunds flyers and depreciation accounting systems. In order to attract more investors, the economic performance squeeze out be inflated by intentionally manipulating figures on inancial reports (Dennis, 2010). Furthermore, likewise the financial factors in financial reports, other several elements including economic, social, and environment nookie also influence an enterprises financial position.Thus, due to ignorance of other factors, the financial position disclosed by accountants may be inaccurate. blend but not the least, the financial statement only took quantitative factors into account but fails to disclose information like integrity of management, prestige and report card of the business with public, customers satisfaction, employees loyalty and efficiency, etc. hat also impacts business decision making (Dennis, 2010). 2. Real terra firma investment send (REIT) Industry and companys historical background George M. Marcus as the substantive estate entrepreneur formed Essex Property Corporation in 1971 and subsequently 23years the company became Essex Property Trust, Inc. when it gained the portfolio of 16 multifamily communities. Essex is a self-managed and self-administered integrated real estate investment trust (REIT) in West Coast of America.In 1960, REITs created by congress is a type of real estate firm that provides opportunities for all Americans to invest in income-producing real estate not just for affluent. The method of this investment is similar to the bonds and stocks investments through mutual funds by many an(prenominal) Americans (REIT, 2012). Essex develops, manages and acquires multifamily residential properties in the specific provinces like the San Francisco, Southern atomic number 20 and the Seattle metropolitan area and Essex relates to land and its appreciation on it like offices, apartments and hotels.Essexs Property Portfolio so far Multi-family pic Office pic Retail other unclassified pic speciality unclassified pic According to the above table charts published by Essex in March of 2013, there are 166 communities comprising 29,506 apartment units and total approximately 315,900 forthright feet of four commercial buildings which are located in major regions of California and Washington under the property portfolio. Besides the existing markets, Essex intended to gauge some new markets by identifying new areas and developing new loose joint venture projects. . Conceptual framework Marketing metric can be specify as a measuring framework which quantifies a dynamic, trend, or characteristic and also can be used by practitioners in selling monitoring and business planning to explain canvass causes, phenomena, project the results of future events and share findings in order to justify marketing programs, decide on financial allocations and evaluate their marketing performance (Farris et al. 2010).Its more effective to use a portfolio o f prosody because it can helper managers with maintenance of productive focus on markets and customers and identification of weaknesses and strengths in some(prenominal) execution and strategies (Bazley et al. 2004). pic There are seven specific metrics correct to measure Essex companys performance and analyze competitors positions. According to the above figure, they are unsay on uprightness (ROE), Earnings onwards Interest, Taxes, dispraise and Amortization (EBITDA), year-on-year growth receipts, return on investment, positiveness metrics, efficiency calculations and neat structure ratios.Gross profit margin, salary profit margin and exchange flow to sales ratio are three critical basic figures that will be used to measure entitys profit office (Bazley et al. 2004). Then, in order to identify companys business efficiency, Return on asset and asset turnover ratio will be metrical as well. Finally, there are three capital structure ratios including equity ratio, debt r atio and debt equity ratio(Mcdonald and Mouncey, 2009).The most vital reason to choose those metrics is that they can maximize the accuracy of measurement about an entitys heath and estimation on the basis of other data. Moreover, they are also interrelated to each other (Birt et al. 2010). 4. Marketing metrics Briefly, The critical purposes of using avocation particular metrics are judging business performance, evaluating plans, quantifying market opportunities, identifying leverage points for improvement for Essex and recognizing its peers threats for the past three years and predict the trend in near future(Farris et al. 010). 4. 1 Earnings before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA) As an alternative for a change-based profit measure, EBITDA can be also defined as the profit before interest, levyation and depreciation and amortization expense. Because it excludes financial backing and tax charge besides asset diminution, its main aim is to measure entitys raw operating earnings compare and analyze profitability between companies (Birt et al. 2010). Figures in US$ and 000 2010 2011 2012 Essex 277,861 338,679 456,888 BRE 228,219 255,066 306,542 Brandywine 370,880 379,556 383,484 Based on the above chart, it apparently illustrates that both of them tried to raise their EBITDA and therefore decline their operating cost. Among them, Essex had the most dramatic increasing trend in EBITDA by changing come in of US$179,027,000 during three years. 4. 2 Profitability metrics Under this category, there are three basic metrics gross profit margin, net profit margin and cash flow to sales ratio to manoeuver entitys profit.Gross profit margin refers to the percentage of sales revenue that results in gross profit which measures profitability in selling, producing and buying goods before other expenses are taken into account (Birt et al. 2010). Higher rate heart and soul better likelihood of success to divide more satisfactory return to own ers and cover more other expenses (Atrill et al. 2008). Net profit margin reveals the symmetricalness of sales revenue results in profit before interest and tax (Birt et al. 2010).This ratio is the most appropriate measure of profit from trading operations which is before took any costs of servicing long-term finance into account (Atrill et al. 2008). Cash flow to sales ratio reflects a proportion of cash flow from operating activities compared to its net sales revenue can be used to measure an entity ability to convert its sales into cash. Higher value means more efficient productivity and creditworthiness and indicates the firm has more ability to grow (Business Dictionary, 2012).

Social Studies: The Invasion of Kuwait

Social studies nones Chapter 1 The Invasion of capital of capital of capital of capital of capital of capital of capital of Kuwait, in like manner know as the Iraq-Kuwait contend, was a major encroach amid the Republic of Iraq and the State of Kuwait, which returned in the s eventide-month coarse Iraki occupation of Kuwait, which accomp whatsoeveringly led to direct army intervention by unify States-led forces in the disconnect fight. edit Dispute oer the financial debt Kuwait had heavily funded the 8 year long Iraki fight against Iran. By the time the war ended, Iraq was not in a financial position to repay the $14 cardinal it borrowed from Kuwait to finance its war. 6 Iraq argued that the war had prevented the rise of Iranian influence in the Arab World. However, Kuwaits reluctance to exculpate the debt created strains in the relationship betwixt the two Arab countries. During deep 1989, around(prenominal) functionary meetings were held amid the Kuwaiti and I raki leaders but they were unable to retard the deadlock between the two. edit Economic warfare and slant drilling agree to George Piro, the FBI interrogator who questioned ibn Talal Hussein Hussein afterwards his capture (in 2003), Iraq tried repaying its debts by raising the prices of oil color through and through OPECs oil production cuts.However, Kuwait, a extremity of the OPEC, prevented a global increase in petroleum prices by change magnitude its proclaim petroleum production, thus lowering the price and preventing reco truly of the war-crippled Iraki deliverance. 7 This was seen by nigh in Iraq as an act of aggression, further distancing the countries. The feed in oil prices had a catastrophic electric shock on the Iraki economy. According to former Iraki Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz, every US$1 drop in the price of a barrel of oil ca utilize a US$1 billion drop in Iraqs one-year revenues triggering an acute financial crisis in Baghdad. 5 It was estimated tha t Iraq garbled US$14 billion a year due to Kuwaits oil price strategy. 8 The Iraki brass described it as a form of stinting warfare, which it claimed was aggravated by Kuwaits both in alleged slant-drilling across the circumference into Iraqs Rumaila battle institute. The dispute oer Rumaila field started in 1960 when an Arab confederacy declaration marked the Iraq-Kuwait beach 2 miles north of the reciprocal ohmern- most(prenominal) pointedness of the Rumaila field. 9 During the IranIraq state of war, Iraki oil drilling operations in Rumaila declined speckle Kuwaits operations increased.In 1989, Iraq acc apply Kuwait of using sophisticated drilling techniques to pink oil from its share of the Rumaila field. Iraq estimated that US$2. 4 billion worth of Iraki oil was stolen by Kuwait and withdrawed compensation. 1011 Kuwait dismissed the accusations as a false Iraqi ploy to honestful(prenominal)ify phalanx challenge against it. several(prenominal) American firm s conveying in the Rumaila field likewise dismissed Iraqs slant-drilling claims as a smokescreen to disguise Iraqs more ambitious intentions. 9 edit Kuwaits lucrative economy After the IranIraq War, the Iraqi economy was struggling to rec everywhere.Iraqs civil and military debt was higher(prenominal) than its state budget. Most of its ports were layed, oil fields mined, and traditional oil customers lost. patronage having a total lend area 1/25th of Iraq, Kuwaits coastline was doubly as long as Iraqs and its ports were some of the busiest in the Persian gulf region. The Iraqi brass workly realized that by seizing Kuwait, it would be able to solve or so of its financial problems and consolidate its regional authority. cod to its relatively scummy size, Kuwait was seen by Baghdad as an unprovoked target as well as a historically intact part of Iraq separated by British imperialism.The Persian gulf War (2 haughty 1990 28 February 1991), unremarkably referred to as the Gulf War, and alike cognize as the First Gulf War1213, the Second Gulf War,1415 by Iraqi leader ibn Talal Hussein Hussein as The Mother of all Battles,16 and comm precisely as Desert combat for the military response, was the final conflict, which was initiated with fall in Nations indorsement, by a concretion force from 34 nations against Iraq, with the expressed purpose of waiver Iraqi forces from Kuwait after its onset and annexation on 2 solemn 1990.The invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi host that began 2 frightful 1990 was met with representingwide condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq by members of the UN Security Council. U. S. ch ancestrywoman George H. W. pubic h straining positioned American forces to Saudi-Arabian-Arabian-Arabian-Arabian Arabia and urged other countries to send their own forces to the scene. An forces of nations joined the compression of the Gulf War. The bang-up majority of the military forces in the union were from the United States, with Saudi Arabia, the United officedom and Egypt as leash contributors, in that effectuate.Around US$40 billion of the US$60 billion cost was paid by Saudi Arabia. 17 The initial conflict to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with an aerial bombardment on 17 January 1991. This was followed by a earthly concern assault on 23 February. This was a decisive victory for the coalition forces, who change stated Kuwait and advanced into Iraqi territorial dominion. The coalition ceased their advance, and state a cease- absquatulate ascorbic acid mos after the scope running play started. Aerial and ground besiege was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas on the border of Saudi Arabia.However, Iraq launched missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia. nurture information Iraq-United States relations Throughout much of the Cold War, Iraq had been an ally of the Soviet Union, and there was a history of friction between it and the United States. The U. S. was concern with Iraqs position on IsraeliPalestinian politics, and its disapproval of the nature of the heartsease between Israel and Egypt. The U. S. also disliked Iraqi keep going for various Arab and Palestinian militant groups such as Abu Nidal, which led to its inclusion on the growing U.S. list of state sponsors of international terrorism on 29 declination 1979. The U. S. re chief(prenominal)ed officially neutral after the invasion of Iran, which became the IranIraq War, although it assisted Iraq covertly. In sue 1982, however, Iran began a successful counteroffensive subprogram Undeniable Victory, and the United States increased its support for Iraq to prevent Iran from forcing a surrender. In a U. S. bid to open in force(p) diplomatic relations with Iraq, the country was removed from the U. S. ist of state sponsors of terrorism. Ostensibly this was beca map of advance in the regimes record, although former United States Assistant depository of D efense Noel Koch later stated, No one had both doubts about the Iraqis move involvement in terrorism The real reason was to help them quest for in the war against Iran. 18 With Iraqs immature found success in the war, and its spurn of a peace offer in July, arms sales to Iraq reached a record spike in 1982. An obstacle, however, remained to any potential U.S. -Iraqi relationship Abu Nidal go along to operate with official support in Baghdad. When Iraqi ch bareman Saddam Hussein expelled the group to Syria at the United States request in November 1983, the Reagan organization direct Donald Rumsfeld to meet President Hussein as a particular(prenominal) envoy and to cultivate ties. Main article Invasion of Kuwait By the time the ceasefire with Iran was signed in terrific 1988, Iraq was virtually bankrupt, with almost of its debt owed to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.Iraq pressured both nations to forgive the debts, but they refused. Kuwait was also accused by Iraq of exceeding its OPEC quotas and driving down the price of oil, thus further ache the Iraqi economy. The collapse in oil prices had a catastrophic impact on the Iraqi economy. The Iraqi Government described it as a form of economic warfare, which it claimed was aggravated by Kuwait slant-drilling across the border into Iraqs Rumaila oil field. 19 Iraq claimed Kuwait had been a part of the Ottoman Empires tree trunk politic of Basra.Its judgment dynasty, the al-Sabah family, had concluded a protectorate agreement in 1899 that assigned righteousness for its foreign aff transmission lines to Britain. Britain drew the border between the two countries, and advisedly tried to limit Iraqs access to the ocean so that any emerging Iraqi government would be in no position to exist Britains domination of the Persian Gulf. Iraq refused to remove the border, and did not recognize the Kuwaiti government until 1963. 20 In early July, Iraq complained about Kuwaits behavior, such as not respecting the ir quota, and openly terrorened to take military action.On the 23rd, the CIA inform that Iraq had moved 30,000 troops to the Iraq-Kuwait border, and the U. S. maritime fleet in the Persian Gulf was placed on alert. On the 25th, Saddam Hussein met with April Glaspie, an American ambassador, in Baghdad. At that meeting, Glaspie told the Iraqi delegation, We dupe no opinion on the Arab-Arab conflicts. On the 31st, negotiations between Iraq and Kuwait in Jeddah failed fantasticly. 21 On 2 August 1990 Iraq launched an invasion with its warplanes, bombard Kuwait City, the Kuwaiti capital.The main thrust was conducted by commandos deployed by helicopters and boats to approach shot the city, piece of music other divisions seized the airports and two airbases. In spite of Iraqi sabre-rattling, Kuwait did not have its forces on alert, and was caught unaware. After two sidereal eld of incisive combat, most of the Kuwaiti Armed Forces were either overrun by the Iraqi republican Guar d, or had escaped to neighboring Saudi Arabia. After the decisive Iraqi victory, Saddam Hussein installed his cousin, Ali Hassan al-Majid as the governor of Kuwait. 22Saddam Hussein detained several Westerners, with video footage shown on state television On 23 August 1990 President Saddam appeared on state television with Western hostages to whom he had refused exit visas. In the video, he patted a small British male child named Stuart Lockwood on the buns. Saddam consequently asks, through his interpreter, Sadoun al-Zubaydi, whether Stuart is getting his milk. Saddam went on to say, We hope your presence as invitees here will not be for too long. Your presence here, and in other places, is meant to prevent the scourge of war. 23 inwardly hours of the invasion, Kuwaiti and U. S. delegations requested a meeting of the UN Security Council, which passed Resolution 660, decry the invasion and demanding a detachment of Iraqi troops. On 3 August the Arab League passed its own resol ution, which called for a solution to the conflict from within the League, and warned against distant intervention. On 6 August UN Resolution 661 placed economic sanctions on Iraq. United Nations Security Council Resolution 665 followed soon after, which authorized a naval blockade to enforce the economic sanctions against Iraq.It said the use of measures commensurate to the circumstantial circumstances as may be necessary to halt all inward and outward maritime shipping in order to take stock and verify their cargoes and destinations and to reassure strict implementation of resolution 661. 24 One of the main concerns of the west was the significant threat Iraq posed to Saudi Arabia. Following the triumph of Kuwait, the Iraqi army was within easy striking distance of Saudi oil fields. Control of these fields, along with Kuwaiti and Iraqi reserves, would have precondition Hussein contain over the majority of the worlds oil reserves.Iraq also had a human body of grievances wi th Saudi Arabia. The Saudis had lent Iraq some 26 billion dollars during its war with Iran. The Saudis backed Iraq, as they feared the influence of Shia Irans Islamic revolution on its own Shia minority (most of the Saudi oil fields are in territory populated by Shias). After the war, Saddam felt he should not have to repay the loans due to the help he had given the Saudis by stopping Iran. Soon after his conquest of Kuwait, Hussein began verbally assail the Saudi kingdom. He argued that the U. S. back up Saudi state was an illegitimate and execrable guardian of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. He combined the language of the Islamist groups that had juvenilely fought in Afghanistan with the rhetoric Iran had long used to attack the Saudis. 25 Acting on the insurance policy of the Carter Doctrine, and out of fear the Iraqi army could launch an invasion of Saudi Arabia, U. S. President George H. W. crotch hair quickly announced that the U. S. would launch a all told prote ctive mission to prevent Iraq from invading Saudi Arabia under the codename Operation Desert Shield. Operation Desert Shield began on 7 August 1990 when U.S. troops were sent to Saudi Arabia due also to the request of its monarch, King Fahd who had earlier called for U. S. military assistance. 26 This wholly defensive doctrine was quickly abandoned, as on 8 August, Iraq declared Kuwait to be the 19th province of Iraq and Saddam Hussein named his cousin, Ali Hassan Al-Majid as its military-governor. 27 sac of Kuwait Main article Liberation of Kuwait campaign American decoy attacks by air attacks and naval gunfire the night earlier the liberation of Kuwait were designed to make the Iraqis believe the main coalition ground attack would boil down on Central Kuwait.On 23 February 1991, the 1st Marine Division, due south Marine Division, and the 1st Light Armored Infantry crossed into Kuwait and headed toward Kuwait City. They overran the well designed, but poorly fight downed, Iraqi trenches in the rootage hardly a(prenominal) hours. The Marines crossed Iraqi barbed wire obstacles and mines, then booked Iraqi tanks, which surrendered shortly thereafter. Kuwaiti forces soon attacked Kuwait City, to which the Iraqis offered frail resistance. The Kuwaitis lost one soldier and one aircraft, and quickly liberated the city.Most Iraqi soldiers in Kuwait opted to surrender rather than fight. edit Initial moves into Iraq edit Coalition forces tangle with Iraq General Colin Powell briefs then U. S. President George H. W. Bush and his advisors on the emanation of the ground war Shortly afterwards, the U. S. sevener army corps assembled in in force(p) strength and, spearheaded by the 3rd Squadron of the 2nd Armored Cavalry regiment (3/2 ACR), launched an armored attack into Iraq early on 24 February, just to the west of Kuwait, taking Iraqi forces by surprise. Simultaneously, the U. S.XVIII mobile Corps launched a sweeping left-hook attack across the more often than not undefended surrender of southern Iraq, led by the 3rd outfit Cavalry sway (3rd ACR) and the 24th Infantry Division (Mechanized)). The left flank of this movement was protected by the cut 6th Light Armoured Division Daguet). The French force quickly overcame the Iraqi 45th Infantry Division, suffering and a small come in of casualties and taking a large number of prisoners, and took up blocking positions to prevent an Iraqi counter-attack on the Coalition flank.The right flank of the movement was protected by the British 1st Armoured Division. Once the allies had penetrated deep into Iraqi territory, they turned eastward, launching a flank attack against the selected republican Guard before it could escape. The meshing lasted only a few hours. 50 Iraqi armored vehicles were destroyed, with few coalition losses. On 25 February 1991 however, Iraq launched a scud missile attack on Coalition barracks in Dharan, Saudi Arabia. The missile attack killed 28 American milit ary personnel. 44The mixture of civilian and military vehicles on the lane of Death The Coalition advance was much swifter than U. S. generals had expected. On 26 February, Iraqi troops began retreating from Kuwait, after they had set its oil fields on fire (737 oil wells were set on fire). A long convoy of retreating Iraqi troops formed along the main Iraq-Kuwait highway. Although they were retreating, this convoy was bombed so extensively by Coalition air forces that it came to be known as the Highway of Death. Hundreds of Iraqi troops were killed.Forces from the United States, the United Kingdom, and France continued to pursue retreating Iraqi forces over the border and back into Iraq, fighting frequent battles which resulted in plugive losses for the Iraqi side and light losses on the coalition side, eventually moving to within 150 miles (240 km) of Baghdad before withdrawing from the Iraqi border. One hundred hours after the ground campaign started, on 28 February, President Bush declared a cease-fire, and he also declared that Kuwait had been liberated. CAUSES OF CONFLICTThere are three grassroots causes to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990. First, Iraq had long considered Kuwait to be a part of Iraq. This claim led to several confrontations over the historic period (see below), and continued enmity. Also, it can be argued that with Saddam Husseins act invasion of Iran defeated, he sought easier conquests against his weak southern neighbors. Second, rich deposits of oil straddled the ill-defined border and Iraq constantly claimed that Kuwaiti oil rigs were illegally tapping into Iraqi oil fields. centre Eastern deserts make border delineation difficult and this has caused many conflicts in the region. Finally, the fallout from the First Persian Gulf War between Iraq and Iran strained relations between Baghdad and Kuwait. This war began with an Iraqi invasion of Iran and degenerated into a bloody form of trench warfare as the Iranians tardily dr ove Saddam Husseins armies back into Iraq. Kuwait and many other Arab nations supported Iraq against the Islamic Revolutionary government of Iran, fearful that Saddams defeat could herald a wave of Iranian-inspired revolution passim the Arab world.Following the end of the war, relations between Iraq and Kuwait deteriorated with a lack of gratitude from the Baghdad government for help in the war and the reawakening of old issues regarding the border and Kuwaiti sovereignty. 1973, demo- Iraq occupies as-Samitah, a border patch on Kuwait-Iraq border. Dispute began when Iraq demanded the right to occupy the Kuwaiti islands of Bubiyan and Warbah. Saudi Arabia and the Arab League convinced Iraq to withdraw. 1980-1988- Kuwait supports Iraq in the First Persian Gulf War with Iran.DESCRIPTION OF CONFLICT Amid growing tension between the two Persian Gulf neighbors, Saddam Hussein concluded that the United States and the rest of the external world would not interfere to defend Kuwait. On A ugust 2, 1990, Iraqi forces invaded Kuwait and quickly seized control of the small nation. Within twenty-four hourss, the United States, along with the United Nations, demanded Iraqs immediate withdrawal. U. S. and other UN member nations began deploying troops in Saudi Arabia within the week, and the world-wide coalition began to form under UN authority.By January of 1991, over fractional a million allied troops were deployed in Saudi Arabia and throughout the Gulf region. Intense diplomacy between U. S. and Iraqi officials failed to wager an Iraqi withdrawal, so, on January 16, 1991, confederative forces began the devastating bombing of Iraq and her forces in Kuwait. The ally bombing sought to damage Iraqs infrastructure so as to hinder her strength to make war while also hurting both civilian and military morale. To counter the air attack, Saddam ordered the launching of his feared gouge missiles at both Israel and Saudi Arabia.He hoped to provoke the Israelis into strikin g back at Iraq, which he theorized would split the Arab nations from the anti-Iraq coalition due to the ongoing hostility between Israel and the Arab world. Israel came very close to retaliating, but held back due to President George Bushs pledge to protect Israeli cities from the SCUDs. As a result of this promise, U. S. nationalist missile batteries found themselves deployed in Israel to shoot down the SCUDs. Another result of the SCUD launches was to divert Allied air violence from arrive atting the Iraqi army to hunting for the elusive mobile missile launchers.Even so, the Allied air strikes and cruise missile attacks against Iraq proved more devastating than expected. When the Allied armies launched the ground war on February 23, the Iraqi occupation forces in Kuwait were already beaten. Cut off from their supply bases and headquarters by the intense air campaign, thousands of Iraqi soldiers simply gave up rather than fight, as the assort pushed through Iraqs defenses with r elative ease. In the few cases where the more elite Iraqi forces, such as the Republican Guard, stood and fought, superior American, British and French equipment and rearing proved the undoing of the Soviet-equipped Iraqis.By February 26, U. S. and Allied Arab forces, along with the underground Kuwaiti Resistance, controlled Kuwait City and Allied air forces pounded the retreating Iraqi occupation army. In southern Iraq, Allied armored forces stood at the Euphrates River near Basra, and internal rebellions began to to-do out against Saddams regime. On February 27, President Bush ordered a cease-fire and the surviving Iraqi troops were allowed to escape back into southern Iraq. On March 3, 1991, Iraq accepted the terms of the cease-fire and the fighting ended. CONSEQUENCES OF CONFLICTSaddams plump for war of foreign conquest ended even worse than the low gear one. Iraq again stood defeated with the liberation of Kuwait. Despite the crushing defeat and subsequent Shiite and Kurdis h rebellions, Saddams government retained a strong grip on power in Iraq. As a result of the cease-fire terms, Iraq had to accept the imposition of no-fly zones over her territory and United Nations weapons inspection teams sifting through her nuclear and other weapons programs. The economic and trade sanctions begun during the war continue to the puzzle day, ontributing to severe economic hardship in Iraq. Some reports say hundreds of thousands of children have died due to the sanctions. There are no indications that the government or military suffer undo hardships. While the world (and the United States and Europe), concentrated on Iraq, Syria moved to crush the last resistance to her de facto control of Lebanon, thus shutdown that countrys long civil war. It is believed that Syrias President Assad was given a free quite a little to deal with Lebanon in return for joining the war in Kuwait.Its also believed there was a cash for annuity payment agreed upon When Yemen declared sy mpathy for Iraq, Saudi Arabia expelled upwards of a million Yemeni guest workers, causing economic hardship in Yemen and increased tension between the two neighbors. mark Saudi-Yemen Border Conflict page. CASUALTY FIGURES Update as of August 2, 2009 Iraq Original figures listed 100,000 Iraqi military dead, but more recent estimates place Iraqi dead at 20,000 military and 2,300 civilian. United States 148 killed in action, 458 wounded, and one Missing In Action (MIA). Also, 121 Americans died through non-combat incidents.The one MIA (compared to 1,740 MIA in the Vietnam War), was Navy pilot, Captain Michael Scott Speicher was shot down and was neither rescured, nor was a body found until, on August 2, 2009, the Pentagon announced that U. S. Marines stationed in Iraq had found Speichers remains. See also U. S. identifies remains of pilot missing in Persian Gulf WarLA Times, Aug. 2, 2009 Ironically, or perhaps intentionally, the Pentagon announced the recovery of Speichers on the 19th anniversary of Saddam Husseins invasion of Kuwait, which occurred on August 2, 1990, and sparked the following(a) 19 years of war between the U.S. and Iraq. Gulf war (1990-1), a trammel war in which a US-led coalition enjoying overwhelming technological superiority defeated the armed forces of Iraq in a six-week air campaign crowned with a 100-hour land campaign, with minimal coalition casualties. However, the coalition forces failed to destroy the Republican Guard, mainstay of the Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein, who remained a threat primarily because of his continued growth of nuclear and chemical and biological weapons, tether to repeated aftershocks in the form of US and Allied air strikes throughout the 1990s.The proximate cause was the Rumaila oilfield straddling the Iraq-Kuwait border. In mid-July 1990 Saddam claimed that Kuwait had stolen oil from this field by diagonal drilling and refused to pay back loans received from Kuwait to fund the recent Iran-Iraq war, saying that he had been doing the Gulf monarchies dirty work for them. Neither argument was completely without merit. He massed armour on the frontier and after being told by the US ambassador that the USA did not wish to become involved in the dispute, at 01. 0 local time on 2 August the Iraqi columns invaded. Minds were concentrated and Pres Bush denounced the invasion, alarmed that the Iraqis would carry on into Saudi Arabia and thus control half the worlds oil reserves. The UN condemned the invasion in Resolution 660, demanding immediate and unconditional withdrawal and on 7 August the USA announced it was sending forces in a joint operation with Egypt and Saudi Arabia DESERT SHIELD.The following day the UK announced it would send forces too, in GRANBY. On 29 November 1990 the Security Council adopt Resolution 678, authorizing the USA-led coalition to use all necessary means against Iraq to liberate Kuwait if it did not withdraw by 15 January 1991. Instead, the Iraqis reinforced the ir positions along the southern Kuwaiti border and by 8 January had an estimated 36 to 38 divisions, each nominally 15, 000 strong but actually considerably less(prenominal).The coalition eventually had about 700, 000 troops in the theatre, with the main ground contributions approach shot from the USA and important contingents from the UK, France, Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia, under the operational command of US Gen Schwarzkopf. The maintenance of the coalition, in which Arab states were arrayed with infidels against another Arab state, was pivotal. It was therefore imperative to ensure that Israela target for Iraqi missile attacksshould stay out of the war.The Iraqis were known to have the means to deliver their chemical and biological weapons (CBW) with their al-Hussein missiles, which had a course of 373 miles (600 km), double that of the original Soviet Scud missiles on which they were based. At 02. 38 local time on 17 January DESERT STORM began when US Apache helicopters be gan attacking Iraqi air defence sites near the border to clear a corridor through which a massive air armada then passed, scratch a 43-day air campaign involving 100, 000 sorties.The F-117A Stealth light bomber was very successful in striking key targets in heavily defended Baghdad, as were sea-launched cruise missiles. beforehand(predicate) targets were the Iraqi air defences, electrical power, and command and control facilities, also suspected nuclear and chemical and biological warfare facilities. Although precision-guided munitions got all the publicity thanks to the excellent TV pictures they sent back, the bulk of the heavy weapon delivered were stately bombs.As the campaign continued, the Allies switched to Iraqi ground forces although the elite Republican Guard was less badly damaged than the poorer quality foundation in the forward positions. Schwarzkopf later explained that this was because of his strong concern to avoid his ground troops being held up and rained with CBW. drawframe _The Gulf war, 1991 the land campaign, 24-8 February. Top positions of forces 24 February. Bottom Allied envelopment of Iraqi forces (Click to enlarge)_Early on 18 January Iraq serveed to the air onslaught by attacking Israel, the coalitions most vulnerable point. A missile landed in Tel Aviv, initially reported to have a chemical warhead. The coalition later denied this but the pertinent log, released after the war, recorded it carried cyclo-sarin, a particularly deadly nerve gas. Israel on the watch to counter-attack, but was dissuaded when the USA promised to destroy the Scuds. As a result, a great deal of effort was diverted into the Scud hunt, although the mobile Iraqi missiles proved difficult to find.British and US special forces were also sent in to find and destroy Scuds, with mixed results. The US also used the Patriot, originally an anti-aircraft system, to shoot down incoming missiles, the early time anti-missiles were used in the history of war. Very few incoming missiles were actually hit and those that were broke up, possibly doing even more damage than they would have otherwise. On 20 January, Iraq also began firing missiles at Riyadh, one of which hit a temporary US barracks and inflicted the worst Allied casualties of the war.Schwarzkopf formulated a important military plan of encirclement. While the Iraqis were to have their attention fixed to the south and on the coast by the US Marines, his main effort would be to the west of the main Iraqi forward defences, swinging round skunk them and straight for the Republican Guard. The aim was to conduct a swift, continuous and violent air-land campaign to destroy the Republican Guard Force Corps while minimising friendly force casualties. Aim is to make Iraqi forces move so that they can be attacked throughout the depth of their formations.After several days of probing and artillery raids, the main ground attack began on 24 February with direct attacks into Kuwait from the sou th by the US Marines and two Saudi task forces. The next day, the outflanking forces swung into action, the main force being the US VII Corps including the 1st British Armoured Division, while the XVIII Airborne Corps including the French 6th Light Daguet Division swung even wider to protect the left flank. The VII Corps hit its breach area with 60 batteries of artillery and Multiple Launch Rocket Systems, delivering more explosive power than the Hiroshima atomic bomb.Although Iraq was expected to use CBW, Saddam showed a little tardy discretion and refrained, as there were a number of extremely beastly options the coalition held in reserve, including retaliation in kind or the ravaging of Iraqs extremely vulnerable water-supply system. Late on 25 February he gave the order to withdraw from Kuwait, but the bulk of Iraqi armour was trapped between the Allies closing in from the south and west, and the Gulf and the Euphrates marshes to the east and north.TV pictures of the comprehen sively incinerated Iraqi column that had been attempting to flee Kuwait City raise fears of public revulsion and Pres Bush called a halt after only 100 hours of land campaign. There were also geopolitical considerations. Until the invasion, the West had been pertain to maintain a balance of power between Iraq and Iran in the region, and the Arab members of the coalition might have bolted if the land war had been extended into Iraqi territory. At 08. 00 local time the guns fell silent, andSaddam was to be left with most of the Republican Guard and the freedom to use attack helicopters to crush the rebellions among the Sunni in the south and the Kurds in the north that the coalition had encouraged. Post-war, the extent and sophistication of his weapons go upment programmes came as a shock, and despite UN inspections and economic sanctions that affect mainly the civilian population, there is very little doubt that he has retained some CBW and possibly also some nuclear weapons.Nonet heless, Kuwaits territorial integrity was restored and most of Saddams larger fangs were pulled. The war could only be considered unsuccessful if the hyperbole about human rights that accompanied it had ever been taken seriously by anyone involved. The first phase was Operation Desert Shielda largely defensive operation in which the United States and Saudi Arabia rushed to build up the defensive forces necessary to protect Saudi Arabia and the rest of the gulf, and the United Nations attempted to force Iraq to leave Kuwait through the use of economic sanctions.The United States then led the UN effort to create a broad international coalition with the military forces necessary to liberate Kuwait, and persuaded the United Nations to set a deadline of 15 January 1991 for Iraq to leave Kuwait or face the use of force. The second phase, known as Desert Storm, was the battle to liberate Kuwait when Iraq refused to respond to the UN deadline. The fighting began on 17 January 1991 and ended on 1 March 1991. The UN Coalition liberated Kuwait in a little over six weeks, and involved the intensive use of airpower and armored operations, and the use of new military technologies.The Gulf War left Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein in power, but it destroyed nearly all of Iraqs conventional forces and allowed the United Nations to destroy most of Iraqs long? range missiles and chemical weapons and capabilities to develop nuclear weapons. Saddam Hussein almost certainly saw the rapture and annexation of Kuwait as a means of solving Iraqs economic problems, of greatly increasing Iraqs share of world oil reserves, and as a means of demonstrating that Iraq had become the dominant power in the region. Kuwait was confident of adding at least 2 million barrels a day of oil to Iraqs exports of roughly 3. million, and offered the opportunity to double Iraqs total oil reserves, from 100 billion to 198 billion barrels (representing nearly 20% of the worlds total reserves). Although he cont inued to negotiate his demands on oil revenues and debt relief from the Persian Gulf Arab nations, Saddam Hussein ordered his troops to the Kuwait border in July 1990, built up all of the support capabilities necessary to sustain an invasion, and then ordered his forces to invade on 2 August 1990. Kuwait had not kept its forces on alert, and Iraq met little resistance.It seized the entire country within less than two days within a week, Iraq stated that it would annex Kuwait as its nineteenth province. Iraqi forces also deployed along Kuwaits border with Saudi Arabia, with more than five dollar bill Iraqi divisions in position to seize Saudi Arabias oil? rich Eastern Province. Saudi Arabia had only two brigades and limited amounts of airpower to oppose them. Saddam Hussein may have felt that the world would accept his invasion of Kuwait or would fail to mount any effective opposition. However, Saudi Arabia and the other gulf states immediately supported the Kuwaiti government? n? e xile. The Council of the Arab League voted to condemn Iraq on 3 August and demanded its withdrawal from Kuwait. Key Arab states like Algeria, Egypt, and Syria supported Kuwaitalthough Jordan, Libya, Mauritania, the Sudan, and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) supported Iraq. Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and most other European nations as well as the United States, Canada, and Japan condemned the invasion. U. S. President George Bush announced on 7 August that the United States would send land, air, and naval forces to the gulf.every bit important, the end of the Cold War allowed the United Nations to take firm action under U. S. initiative. On the day of the invasion, the Security Council voted 140 (Resolution 660) to demand Iraqs immediate and unconditional withdrawal from Kuwait. The United States, Britain, and Saudi Arabia led the United Nations in forming a broad military coalition under the lead of U. S. Army Gen. H. Norman Schwarzkopf that deployed the militar y forces necessary to enforce the United Nations sanctions and to defend Saudi Arabia.This was the defensive military operation code? named Desert Shield. On 29 November 1990, the United States obtained a Security Council authorization for the nations allied with Kuwait to use all necessary means if Iraq did not withdraw by 15 January 1991. Key nations like the United States, Britain, France, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and several others began to deploy the additional forces necessary to drive Iraq out of Kuwait. In 199091, the United States deployed a total of 527,000 personnel, over 110 naval vessels, 2,000 tanks, 1,800 fixed? ing aircraft, and 1,700 helicopters. Britain deployed 43,000 troops, 176 tanks, 84 combat aircraft, and a naval task force. France deployed 16,000 troops, 40 tanks, attack helicopters, a light armored division, and combat aircraft. Saudi Arabia deployed 50,000 troops, 280 tanks, and 245 aircraft. Egypt contributed 30,200 troops, 2 armored divisions, and 35 0 tanks. Syria contributed 14,000 troops and 2 divisions. Other allied nations, including Canada, Italy, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates deployed a significant portion of their small forces.Iraq responded by building up its military forces in the Kuwait orbit of operations to a total of 336,000 troops and a total of 43 divisions, 3,475 battle tanks, 3,080 other armored vehicles, and 2,475 major artillery weapons. This buildup on both sides made full? scale war steadily more belike and triggered a number of political debates within the West and the Arab world over the need for war. The most important of these debates took place within the United States largely because of President Bushs political leadership, the Congress, after Bush gained UN endorsement, requested such authorization on 8 January 1991.On 12 January the House of Representatives by 250 to 183 and the Senate by 52 to 47 voted to authorize the use of force. Though a number of new efforts were made to persuade Iraq to leave Kuwait in late December and early January, Saddam Hussein refused to withdraw under any practical conditions. Baghdad also continued to expand its military capabilities in Kuwait and along the Iraqi border with Saudi Arabia, and continued its efforts to switch over Kuwait into an Iraqi province. As a result, the UN Security Council voted to ignore but another effort to negotiate with Iraq.On that date, 15 January 1991, President Bush ordered the military offensive to begin. Desert Storm The Air War The Gulf War began early in the morning on 17 January when the United States exploited its intelligence and targeting assets, cruise missiles, and offensive airpower to launch a devastating series of air attacks on Iraqi command and control facilities, communications systems, air bases, and land? based air defenses. During the first hour of the war, U. S. sea? launched cruise missiles and F? 117 stealth aircraft demonstrated they could attack even heavily defended targets like Baghdad.Within three days, a mix of U. S. , British, and Saudi fighter aircraft had established near air superiority. In spite of Iraqs air strength, UN air units shot down a total of thirty? five Iraqi aircraft without a single loss in air? to? air combat. Although Iraq had a land? based air defense system with some 3,000 surface? to? air missiles, the combined U. S. and British air units were able to use electronic warfare systems, antiradiation missiles, and precision air? to? surface weapons to suppress Iraqs longitudinal? range surface? to? air missiles.As a result, Coalition air forces were able rapidly to broaden their targets from attacks on Iraqs air forces and air defenses to assaults on key headquarters, civil and army communications, electronic power plants, and Iraqs facilities for the production of weapons of mass destruction. Victory in the air was achieved by 24 January, when Iraq ceased to attempt diligent air combat. A total of 112 Iraqi aircraft fled to Ir an, and Iraq virtually ceased to use its ground? based radar to target UN aircraft. This created a safe zone at medium and high altitudes that allowed U. S. nd British air units to launch long? range air? to? surface weapons with impunity. The UN air forces were also able to transmute most of their assets to attacks on Iraqi ground forces. For the following thirty days, UN Coalition aircraft attacked Iraqi armor and artillery in the Kuwaiti theater of operations, as well as flying into Iraq itself to bomb Iraqs forward defenses, elite Republican Guard units, air bases and sheltered aircraft, and Iraqs biological, chemical, and nuclear warfare facilities. Iraqs only power to retaliate consisted of launching modified surface? to? urface Scud missiles against targets in Saudi Arabia and Israel, which had remained outside the war forty Scud variants against Israel and forty? six against Saudi Arabia. U. S.? made Patriot missiles in Israel shot down some Scuds, but although the United N ations carried out massive Scud hunts that involved thousands of sorties, it never found and destroyed any Scud missiles on the ground, which demonstrated the risks posed by the proliferation of mobile, long? range missiles. Iraqs Scud strikes could not, however, alter the course of the war. Iraqi ground forces were struck by more than 40,000 air attack sorties U.S. authorities estimated that airpower helped bring about the desertion or capture of 84,000 Iraqi soldiers and destroyed 1,385 Iraqi tanks, 930 other armored vehicles, and 1,155 artillery pieces before the United Nations launched its land offensive. They also estimated that air attacks severely reduced the flow of supplies to Iraqi ground forces in Kuwait and damaged 60 percent of Iraqs major command centers, 70 percent of its military communications, 125 ammunition storage revetments, 48 Iraqi naval vessels, and 75 percent of Iraqs electric powergenerating capability. Desert Storm The Land War The Aftermath of the War

Peter Tosh: a Pioneer of Reggae and Trailblazing Rastafarian

Peter snake oil A Pioneer of Reggae and Trailblazing Rastafarian Peter taradiddle was not only an incredulous Reggae musician, but an incredible person as well. He had a history of doing his part to serve those in need of help, fighting for those who were unable to fight for themselves. taradiddle, a originate of the Rastafari style, would survive the people of Jamaica through his selfless actions and his music. Peter tarradiddle, innate(p) Winston Hubert McIntosh, was born in Westmoreland, Jamaica on October 9, 1944 to p arnts, Alvera Coke and James McIntosh. frauds initiate would have nothing to do with his upbringing or even spot that drool was his son.In fact, they would not even meet until Tosh was ten old age old. His m different, unable to cargon for Tosh herself, asked her sister to inscribe him, which she did in Savanna-la-Mar, Jamaica. cod to the feeling of rejection that this placed inside of him, Tosh grew up extremely self-reliant and indep deceaseent, wh ich would help him later on in his fight for his people. During the quantify of his upbringing, spiritedness in Jamaica was extremely difficult. Jobs were scarce and money even more so. The majority of families were struggling to make ends meet, scrounging for money and building supply scraps to save roofs over their heads.Jamaicas government was extremely corrupt and the wealthier, land- stimulateing class was victorious advantage of those less fortunate. Tosh recognized this and would later vex a modern day Robin Hood, using his presence in the earthly concern eye to his advantage by babble outing on behalf of his fellow Jamaicans to raise awareness on the issue. Tosh began acting music at a very young age, keeping him apart from gang life sentence. He had no formal training of any instrument, aside from six months of piano lessons when he was in fifth grade. Music was his passion and he excelled in it.Tosh go to Trenchtown with his uncle afterwards his aunt grew very ill and nearly died. It was here that Tosh would develop his musical talents and go on to form the nearly prestigious band in reggae history. Trenchtown, named because of the many trenches that ran through it carrying sewage waste a sort from Kingston, was filled with music. While walking through town one day, Tosh came across a guitarist by the name of Joe Higgs, among early(a)s, singing and playing in the street. During the jam session, he met a couple who were looking for different vocalists to join a group. The couple was impressed by Toshs guitar playing and his baritone voice. Johnson) The couple, Bob Marley and Bunny Livingston, and Tosh, who taught Bob Marley how to play guitar, would cook jam sessions in Higgs backyard. These sessions became more and more serious and would eventually lead to the forming of the influential ska-style band called the Wailing Wailers in 1964. The Wailers went on to record twelve albums including One Love, When the Well Runs Dry, and Simme r Down and released groundbreaking singles including assert it Up, Get Up, Stand Up, and Trenchtown Rock. (http//reggaediscography. blogspot. com/2009/10/peter-tosh-discography. html) By 1966, the band began to fall apart.Marley had moved from Jamaica to the United States to pursue a solely career and Tosh was arrested and served a short(p) stint in jail. By 1972, the Wailers would slowly diminish until they finally broke up. It would be absurd to speak of Peter Tosh and not mention the Rastafari movement, which he had begun to get heavily involved in by this meter. The movement was founded in the slums of Kingston, Jamaica in the 1920s and 1930s by a man by the name of Marcus Garvey. (www. religionfacts. com) Garvey taught that Africans are the true Israelis and that Ethiopia, referred to as Zion, is the real holy land.He further proclaimed that Africans were exiled to Jamaica and other parts of the world outside of Africa (the Americas and Europe are referred to as Babylon) a s a form of divine punishment. (ww. religionfacts. com) In the 1930s, smooth communities had begun popping up in Kingston and Rastafarians began to adopt their own finis to include a distinctive dialect and hair style, and developed their own style of art and music. It was their music that would help spread the ideology of the Rastafari movement across the globe. The music of Bob Marley and Peter Tosh would become messengers of Jah (God) bedcover the word throughout the world.After the Wailers went their separate ways, Tosh focused on a solo career. His send-off album, Legalize It, went public in 1976. The name of the album, as well as the title track, refers to his stance on the legalization of marijuana. Tosh believed that smoking marijuana was a path to enlightenment. It was a way for the running(a) class of Jamaica to get relief from the stresses of life. He further believed that the government do marijuana illegal as a way of oppressing Jamaicans and keeping them in order . Tosh only wrote songs after he had smoked marijuana because he felt he could see clearly. (www. thetalkingdrum. com)By the time of the One Love tranquillity de stain of 1978, Jamaica was in the midst of a political civil war. The project was held in an effort to set aside the differences of Jamaicans and promote peace, love, and harmony. Tosh took this concert, at which Bob Marley and the Wailers were headlining, as an opportunity to speak to the audience. Tosh bluntly dictate the government down, accusing them of using Jamaica and the people that lived there for their resources with little regard as to what would happen to them. He spoke his mind, as always, without caring who would hear. He spoke for the rights of his brothers and sisters of Jamaica.That concert was the first time that a person held in such high regards amongst the public had spoken out against the Jamaican government. It was at this moment that Peter Tosh became a heroic figure and a public rights leader. The high regard in which he was held by his peers would invert out to be a blessing and a curse. Four months after the One Love Peace Concert and his lecture against the Jamaican government, Tosh was brutally attacked by up to ten police officers and nearly died. This was the first of many attacks, both verbal and physical, but this is where Tosh cherished to be.He wanted to be the center of attention, not for his own ego but to be in a position to speak on behalf of his people. It was a way for him to voice their concerns and demand corrective action. The One Love Peace Concert not only boosted Tosh in the political eye, but would end up boosting his American musical career as well. Mick Jagger, of the bowl Stones, was in the audience at the concert and would go on to sign Tosh under the Rolling Stones record label. Tosh would go on to release two albums under the label, Bush Doctor and Mystic Man. The short life of this relationship ended when Tosh felt he was not world promot ed properly. www. talkingdrum. com) Two years after releasing Wanted savvy or Alive, Tosh had hit the pinnacle of his career in 1983, which was the time of his European tour promoting Mama Africa. These two albums would go on to become known as Toshs best work. (www. talkingdrum. com) While on this tour, Tosh appeared on stage with his signature M-16 military assault rifle guitar. The guitar was significant in the fact that it was a symbol for Toshs music being his weapon against the corrupt politicians and evils in the world. (www. talkingdrum. com) His concerts were more than just music. They were spiritually enlighten and informative.It was not uncommon for Tosh to set aside some time during a show to talk to the audience about his views on the evils of the world. condescension the public being supportive of Tosh and his cause, he was murdered by three assailants on September 11, 1987. Record has it that three men, one of whom Tosh knew and tried to help find work after a enc losure in jail, had approached him at his home demanding money. When Tosh replied that he had none, he was apoplexy three times. The assailant that Tosh knew turned himself in to the authorities, while the other two were never found. The story of the robbery, however, remains under scrutiny.According to reports, nothing from Toshs home was missing. The three men who went there to rob him took nothing. many an(prenominal) speculate that it was a hit to forever silence Tosh and his plainspoken ways. From the moment he was born, it seems Peter Tosh was destined to live the life he did. He was a man with many admirable qualities, most importantly the courage to speak up for those who were not in a position to do it themselves in effort to better the lives of his fellow Jamaicans. He was a pioneer for the Rastafari movement and a prominent figure in the development of Reggae music, forming it into the shape it holds today.

Many of the characters in ‘Of Mice and Men’ have dreams Essay

Many of the characters in Of Mice and manpower take in day inhalations. What argon their breathing ins and how near atomic number 18 any of them to achieving what they want?Of Mice and Men, write by John Steinbeck is a folkic novel set in a gap t throw in Salinas Valley, California. The novel black-and-bluethorn impart been set here as a result of most of Steinbecks childhood being spent on his fathers farmland. His descriptions of the backing go forth invite been aided by his first hand dwell of the ranches of the ara. The novel itself docu workforcets the lives of Lennie Small and George Milton. With Lennie being mentally challenged he has the psychological capabilities of a five year old. This means he has to be cared for by George because he acts childish and irresponsibly. For this reason, he often causes commotion within the ranch he is engagementing. On many a nonher(prenominal) occasions disruption has occurred and occurs, George and Lennie are agonistic to give way their current ranch and start again at a naked as a jaybird wiz.As they are always moving around, they neer have a secure job and are always staying in temporary accommodation. With severally time they move to a different ranch they fantasy more than and more of having their own piece of land where they burn be their own bosses and live off the crops they grow. This is shown by this quote, and we can live off the fatta the lan give tongue to by George. This is sole(prenominal) one of the many breathing ins that feature in Of Mice and Men, however non one of the dreams featured in this novel are progress tod. This reflected the harsh reality of the Great Depression and the racial prejudice in society at the time.Steinbeck set Of Mice and Men during the Great Depression, in the late 1920s and the 1930s. Many migrants came to California, from other parts of the world looking for work as the States was seen as the Land of Opportunity. This glance of hope inspire d many Europeans to emigrate as Europe, at the time, was overcrowded and complaint liberateden. the States was considerd to provide cheap land and no rigid class structure existed. These characteristics gave Europeans the chance of a completely different way of tone to what they were use to.In 1929, America entered a prolonged period of economical deprivation due to the collapse of the New York stock exchange, The Wall channel Crash. Following The Wall Street Crash, many Americans who had invested swell deals of money into stocks and shares mazed almost all of their investments. In few cases, nation would have lost their houses and life savings. During The Great Depression, failed businesses and long-term unemployment were of the norm. The hopes of those immigrants, who came to America looking for a new life, were dashed by this tragic nonethelesst. America was certainly non the Land of Opportunity.George and Lennie travelled from ranch to ranch together. This was unusual as most ranch workers would only usually work at one ranch for no longer than a calendar month or two. They would literally not have the time for friendship. This was one of the reasons that the fairish workers dream was for some shape of companionship. The position that George and Lennie had travelled together so long is significant as they lived the dream of so many other workers. It would give them the chance of having an alternative dream, one of owning their own land on which they could live off.When travelling from ranch to ranch workers could not carry many possessions and so had nothing to show for their years of working. They would work and work simply not really achieve much. They would spend the money they earned and therefore earn some more and repeat. This is illustrated in the quote, ..work up a situation and blow the stake. A dream would be historic as it would give a worker something to work towards instead of working with no real direction in their life.Many of the characters in the novel have dreams. The dream is a form of escape from reality of life. As antecedently stated, George and Lennies dream is to have a piece of land that they can call their own, tend it, grow crops and raise animals. However, Lennie specifically dreams of caring for rabbits. This shows his immaturity. He says, An have rabbits George is always repeating this dream to Lennie. When he does depict the dream to Lennie, he uses exaggerative language and gets involved in the dream almost as much as Lennie. Both George and Lennie pass away excited when the dream is recalled. They swear, Well that say the hell with deprivation to work , animating their eagerness to perpetrate their dream.George and Lennies dream even offtually fails. This is for a number of reasons. It is mainly because Lennie is such a burden to George. Because of Lennies mental incapability, he has no supposition that he is making Georges life miserable. George says, Course Lennies a God da mn nuisance most of the time, however you get used to goin around with a qat an you cant get rid of him George is being held back by Lennie as they are constantly forced to change jobs, because of situations the Lennie gets them in to and therefore they cant stay in work long enough to build up any sort of savings. The result of this is that they can not save up the money to achieve the dream.Lennie has limited social skills and so does not know how to move with people. Instead, he finds comfort in touching things and is to a fault tactile. This causes trouble as Lennie often touches womens clothes and is misunderstood and seen to be abusive. For this reason, George has to mention a constant eye on Lennie.When confect makes the proposal of entering their dream in exchange for three hundred dollars, George suddenly sees some happening of the dream succeeding. Before, he had merely used the dream as a pacifier for Lennie and had lulled himself into believing that it may happen s o that he could spread over bringing hope to Lennie. I think that sub-consciously he always knew that the dream would never be a reality. With edulcorates financial input, the dream could realistically be achieved within the month. However, an abrupt end to their hopes arrives. Lennie, in his simple-minded way, cannot conceive of the line where stroking stops and hurting begins in wrong of petting, and he ends up accidently killing two animals by petting them violently. intimately horrifically, at the climax of the story, he kills Curlys wife in the same way.The fact that he killed her was the final blow to the dream. I think I knowed from the truly first. I think I knowed wed never do her, George says as he realizes the dream is inevitable. Lennie was inevitably going to be hunted tweakhearted and shot on site. George, who is forced to gist the manhunt for Lennie, decides that the kindest way out for both him and Lennie is to kill him when he finds him. He does this by lu ring Lennie into a false state of trust by reciting their dream to him one last time. This sends Lennie off into death with his dream in his head. You can argue in some way Lennie has achieved his dream.Curlys wife has a dream common to the period and today. She believes that she has the talent to become a Hollywood actress. She was convinced of this as when she was younger she acquainted herself with a Hollywood conductor who deemed her suitable to be an actress in the movies. This is shown in a quote interpreted from a passage spoken by Curlys wife, An I coulda sat in them big hotels, an had pitchers took of me..An all them nice clothes they wear. Because this guy said I was a natural. This guy told her she would receive a letter from him explaining where to meet to develop her acting career. Her explanation of why she didnt become an actress is idealistic at best. She believed that her mother stole that letter. However, this is an optimistic proficientification.It just so happe ns that shortly after Curleys wife was given the hope of bonnie an actress, she met Curley. When she realised that her dream of bonny an actress was truly over, she decided to marry Curley. She may have done this as, at the time, it was very difficult for a adult female to get a job and live on her own. The main profession of women then was housewife.Most women would marry a modest worker but marrying a rich man who owned a ranch was a bonus. Life would be easy for Curleys wife as she would not have to lift a finger. As there was such discrimination towards women, Curleys wife found herself being ignored by the men on the ranch. She was not paid much attention by Curley and was seen by him as more of a trophy than a wife. These are the main reasons that Curleys wife is not happy. She openly expresses that she does not even love Curley. I dont like Curley. She regrets that she marry him in the first place.She was not able to speak to anyone during the day as all of the men were out on the fields working. This causes her to be passing lonely. At any chance she can she will speak to someone. When she speaks to Lennie in the barn, she says, Why cant I talk to you? I never get to talk to nobody. I get awful lonely. This shows that she craves friendship. She is often prize on the men just looking for someone to talk to. She justifies this by saying to Slim Hi, good lookin. Im tryin to find Curley, Slim.The fact that she does not even have a name and is instead referred to as Curleys wife shows her status on the ranch. It shows that she is so insignificant that she is not even deemed important enough to warrant a real name. She is looked down on and shown no respect by most of the men on the ranch. She also has the dream to be clayey-boiled as equal to the men on the ranch.This is similar to Crooks dream. He just wants to be received by everyone else on the ranch. However, both Crooks and Curleys wife have similar dreams which would forgo you to think tha t they would sympathise with each other. The reality is quite opposite. Curleys wife approaches Crooks in an aggressive manor and speaks to him in a demoralising way. She says, wholesome you keep your place, then Nigger. I could get you strung up on a tree so easy it aint even funny She perhaps speaks to Crooks with no respect as he is the only person on the ranch over whom she has a higher status.Crooks and Candy try to enter George and Lennies dream. They both do this for their own reasons. Candy is worried about his future on the ranch. He believes that is nearing the point of becoming useless to the ranch owner. He needs some security so that when he does become of no use, he can settle down somewhere. Crooks feels socially isolated and needs to go somewhere that he will be treated as an equal. George, Lennie and Candy do not distract against Crooks as much as most. This is the reason that he would feel comfy living in a house with them.Candy, when he enters the dream, provid es financial power. He has three hundred dollars that he is willing to invest in the dream. When he first tries to join the dream, George responds in a negative and coy way. He says You know a place like that? Candy Spose I do? Whats that to you? George. However, when George considers Candys proposition, he starts to think that the dream may actually become a reality. Candy is afraid that if he does not get somewhere that he can retire to, he may have no one to care for him. Eventually he will be seen of no use and disposed of, much like his dog.Crooks joins the dream as he feels he needs a comfort from society, somewhere that he is accepted for the person that he is and not judged by his skin colour or his disability. Crooks has no status and is treated with no respect on the ranch. He is frustrated with all of the racism directed towards him. He says, If I say something, why, its just a nigger saying itCrooks had a taste of equality when he was a child. He was accepted by white children and has perhaps not accepted the fact that he is now a social outcast. He says, The white kids come to play at our place, an sometimes I went to play with them, and some of them was pretty nice He remembers what it was like to be an equal and wants to palpate that feeling again. This is one of the reasons the Crooks joins the dream.Candy will soon be too old and frail to keep his job at the ranch. The fact that he only has one hand means that his job opportunities are very limited. He, much like Crooks, has no one in his life. He just watches workers come and go from the ranch. He would have somewhere to belong if he joined the dream. This is a very important psychologically as having a place to call home can give Candy a reason to carry on living.All of these characters have dreams and their dreams are important to them. They all give their character some sort of goal to aspire for and a light at the end of the tunnel. I believe Steinbeck is trying to make a point by inc luding all of these dreams. I think he is trying to say that without dreams, we are all lost in our lives. We all need some sort of dream to keep us motivated. I think the novel was written to show the throttlehold that the Great Depression had on America in the 1930s. It also shows how hard the life of an itinerant worker was. Of Mice and Men was very a descriptive and informative book. It made me realise that dreams, however small or big, are vital in life.

‘Mirror’ & double-layered poem Essay

Mirror is a double-layered poem The mirror, personified and equipped with senses, perks and depicts its mankind in the most honest terms then we see our aver world from the mirrors perspectivehow raw and tormenting it is. Why the rootage chooses to personify a mirror as the poems teller is firstly beca pulmonary tuberculosis it is an object most closely associated with a cleaning woman who seeks to see what she really is (11). When she is young, the mirror cheerfully reflects and praises her youthful violator, letting her contemplate on her own appearance.When she is older, it cruelly reminds her of times meddling in her melt beauty and how life has passed and left her behind. Secondly, the mirror reflects the world just as it isit cannot lie to usand faithfully shows us all signs of aging, sorrow, pain and nausea that appear in our face. The theme of the poem is the effects of time reflected in the mirror, how it has drowned a young girl and makes a woman become an old wom an. Adverbs depicting the motion of time atomic number 18 employed throughout the poem most of the time (6), so long (7), all over and over (9), Now (10), Each morning (16), day after day (18).The badinage is deliberated in the difference between the mirrors reflection and perception of changes in the outside world. The woman who looks at the mirror is sad because her beauty and youthfulness are fading while her tears and agitation are considered rewards by the mirror. In the first stanza, the mirror simply tries to define its human beings and introduce the reader to its world using its own language register. In the opening line, the mirror describes its appearance and unique quality, I am ash gray and exact. I have no preconception. (1).The word sw cede demonstrates Plaths sensitivities and fun in her personification and imagery everything is instantly reflected inside the mirror as if the mirror has devoured them. Next, mirror immediately explains its non-discriminatory beh aviours as being truthful or else than cruel. In the last four lines of stanza 1, the mirror honestly describes its bounded world. Ironically, change surface though the mirror reflects everything truthfully and exactly with no preconceptions or prejudice, it seems to alive(p) in self-created phantasms, that the opposite wall is a part of my heart. margin 8 presents the mirror with human characteristics, not the eye of a small-scale god, four-cornered as it describes itself. Nevertheless, its world constantly collides with the world outside itour world it flickers. //Faces and phantasma separate us over and over. In the first stanza, the use of caesura in most of the sentences interrupts the flow of the poem but gives the mirror its own tad emphatic and meditative. The enjambment between line 2 and 3 as well as between line 7 and 8 allow the mirror to reflect on itself naturally and coherently.In stanza 2, the mirror ironically creates another illusion, Now I am a lake (10), w hich is in crinkle with its claim to be only truthful. It steeply demonstrates its usefulness in helping a woman to see what she really is. The images of the candles and moon (12) whitethorn symbolize fragility, inconstancy and instability which contrast with how faithfully it serves the woman (13). The contact between the mirror and the woman strengthens by day it is important to her and she brightens its existence. Nevertheless, its unintentional cruelty is shown in its being only truthful (4).The simile worry a terrible fish is consistent with the mirrors illusion that it is a lake but it shows Plaths grotesque and tormenting view of agingas a destructive and dehumanizing process. The poem is structured as narrative prose poetry, with the use of caesura to create an emphatic tone, to present the mirror as a misunderstood, proud and honest object. The mirror exactly and dutifully reflects what appears before it and considers the changes shown in it others doing and all in all out of its power she drowned a young girl, and in me an old woman//Rises toward her day after day (17-18).

A Mother’s Legacy In Mary Shelley’s Mathilda Essay

AbstractMary Wollstonecraft and her daughter Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley atomic number 18 two writers whose ideas argon likely to be similar. Shelley admits that she is influenced by her mother. Therefore, the purpose of this stress is to find out and to identify the ideas presented in Wollstonecrafts essay on womens rights A Vindication for the Rights of Woman (1792) and see if they ar integrate into Shelleys novella Mathilda (1819).My analysis of A Vindication for the Rights of Woman shows that Wollstonecrafts main ideas are that limited education, the subjugation of women by the family, female habituation on men and romantic thinking are the source for womens inferiority. This essay identifies and examines these ideas in the light of some secondary material and tries to educe that they are visible as themes in Shelleys Mathilda. In Mathilda, these ideas are visible as themes throughout the novel. The tragedy that befalls the characters illustrates the immoral and self-destru ctive tendencies which women defend when being overt to these conditions. On the other hand, Shelley does not emphasize a lack of education and offers an additional point of view where Wollstonecrafts views on motherhood are criticized.The conclusion drawn is that Wollstonecrafts ideas must perk up had an influence on Shelley as the fate of the characters is an illustration of the society that is criticized in A Vindication for the Rights of Woman and its destruction. However, Shelley does not agree on ideas with the subject of upbringing and goes against a few of her mothers main points, to wit the role of mothers and the pre-eminence of education. They mostly have a consensus as most ideas that are present in one work are present in the other but Shelley has rebelled against some of her mothers notions.

Negotiable Instrument Act 1881

The as foolable marrow Act 1881 Compiled By Neelakshi Jaidka OBJECTIVES by and bywards reading this lesson, you should be able to- Understand meaning, essential characteristics and types of movable musical peckers find out the meaning and marketing of draws, crossing of check outs and croupcellation of crossing of a look into formulate capacity and indebtedness parties to a conveyable shafts and Understand various aliment of passable promoter Act, 1881 regarding negotiation, assignment, sufferment, bankers endureance, etc. of moveable pawns.INTRODUCTION * The transportable Instruments institutionalize was passed by the Council and received assent on December 9, 1881. The Act came into force from march 1, 1882. * Prior to its enactment, the provision of the English passable Instrument were applicable in India, * It extends to the whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir. * The Act operates subject to the provisions of Sections 31 and 32 of th e Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934 * Premable An Act to define and Law relating to promissory Notes, Bills of Exchange and check overs MEANING on the table pecker substance an performer the place in which is acquired by every last(predicate)(prenominal) one who takes it bonafide and for the value notwithstanding every defect in the designation of the preliminary troupe . DEFINITION SEC 13 A transportable pecker means A promissory advert or Bill of exchange or draw off Payable either to order of battle or Be arr. CHARACTERISTICS OF NEGOTIABLE puppet SEC 13 1 freely transferable from one someone to an different somebody. 2 The holder in out-of-pocket course obtains good title of the legal instrument notwithstanding any defect in the previous holder. 3 HDC of a assignable instrument passel fulfil on the instrument in his own observe. transferable infinite times cashbox its matureness. PRESUMPTIONS AS TO NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT mho 118 1. CONSIDERATION- either assignable instrument was make, accepted, endorsed or worn-out for consideration 2. reckon every(prenominal) movable instrument bearing a date was do or gaunt on that date. 3. Time of acceptance every add-in of exchange was accepted within a reasonable time afterwardsward the date mentioned on it but forrader of its due date. 4. Time of transfer- every transfer of transferable instrument was do before its due date. 5. STAMP-lost promissory note, wag of exchange or stay was duly stumped. 6.HDC that the holder of N/I is a HDC . PROMISSORY NOTE SEC. 4 Definition A promissory note is an instrument in theme (Not being a bank- note or a currency note) containing an Un qualified at a lower placetaking sign(a) by the nobleman to open a Certain sum of bullion exclusively to a original mortal or the Order of a certain someone. Essentials Characteristics of a promissory Note 1. Writing Promissory note essential(prenominal)iness be in create verb exclus ivelyy. Writing includes print and typewriting. Oral previse can not Constitute a binding promissory note. for the most part consideration, Place and date of making need not be mentioned on the promissory note. . Promise to suffer- (a) A Promissory note essential contain an undertaking Promise to hand. (b) Mere acknowledgment of debt is not sufficient. pulmonary tuberculosis of word promise is not mandatory, but the maker should bind himself to profit. EX. - I have received a sum of Rs. 5,000 from Sohan. This mensuration will be repaid on demand. 3. Unconditional promise- (a) The undertaking/ promise to pay should be unconditional and definite. (b)Unconditional event means an event which is certain to top but the time of its occurrence is uncertain. Examples- I promise to pay B Rs. 00, seven twenty-four hour periods after whitethorn unification with C cannot pee a promissory note because a condition as to marriage is attached. A writes I promise to pay C Rs. 25,000, 7 eld after the expiration of B. This is a legitimate promissory note and is not conditional, since merely the time of death of B is uncertain, but is sure to happen. 4. Signed by the maker-Promissory note should be subscribe by the maker himself. Where it is compose and the name of the maker appears in the instrument, but is not signed, it sh tout ensemble not make believe a valid promissory note. 5. Payee to be a certain person Promissory note should specify the payee in clear terms i. . by name, son of, and resident of, etc. The defrayment can also be identified by description. 6. Certain some of money- Sum due moldiness(prenominal) be certain or capable of being make certain. The sum shall be deemed to be certain when the rate of interest is specified. coin whitethorn be collectible in installments is also a valid promissory note. Examples- I promise to pay Balu, Rs. 10,000, and all different sums which shall be due is not valid since the sum is not certain. 7. Payment of saddles altogether- on that point mustiness be a promise to pay only money and not other consideration, e. g. I promise to pay B a sum of Rs. 0,000 and deliver him my Scorpio Car is not valid. 8. punctually stamped and dated- Stamps of requisite gist and description must be attach on the instrument and duly cancelled either before or at the time of its execution. If the promissory note is not dated, it is presumed to have been do on the date of its delivery. Bill of exchange Sec. 5 Definition A notation of exchange is an instrument in Writing containing an unconditional order, singed by the maker, directing a certain person to pay a certain a sum of money only to, a certain person or the order of a certain person or the flattop of the instrument.Essentials Characteristics of a Bill of Exchange (a)It must be in writing (b)It must contain n expresses order to pay (c)The order to pay must be definite and unconditional (d) It must be signed by the drawer (e)The sum contai ned in the order must be certain (f)The order must be to pay money only (g)Drawer, drawee and payee must be certain (usually, same person is the drawer and payee) (h)It must be stamped. Parties to a Bill of Exchange Drawer- The person who draws the scorecard (i. e. , the person who makes the buck) is called a drawer. His liability is secondary and conditional.His liability is primary and conditional until the bank note is accepted. Drawee- 1. The person on whom the bill is drawn is called as drawee. 2. On acceptance of the bill- He is called as Acceptor, he wrenchs apt(predicate) for the payment of the Bill his liability is primary and unconditional. Payee The person to whom money is to be paid is named in the bill. He is called as payee. Cheque Sec. 6 Definition- substantiation is a bill of exchange, drawn on a specified banker and not show to be collectable otherwise than on demand. It includes, the electronic image of a truncated cheque and a cheque in the electronic for m.Essentials characteristics of a cheque- (a)The definition starts with the cheque is a bill of exchange so it must satisfy all the essential features of a valid bill of exchange. (b)It is always drawn on a specified banker. Banker includes any person acting as a banker and any post office thrift bank Sec. 3. (c)It is always payable on demand and not otherwise. (d) other point * It is drawn on a banker * there ar trio parties the drawer, the drawee, and the payee. * It is seldom drawn in sets * It does not require acceptance by the drawee. years of grace are not allowed to a banker * No stamp responsibility is payable on checks * It is usually drawn on the printed initialise Form of cheque A cheque may be drawn in 3 forms- (1. )Bearer cheque Expressed to be payable to aircraft carrier or the expiry authorization is an endorsement in blank. (2. )Crossed cheque Cheque that can be collected only through a banker. Promissory Note Bill of Exchange * It is promise to pay * It is anorder to pay * in that location are only two parties the drawer, and the payee. * There are three parties, the drawer, the drawee, and the payee. * There is no necessity of acceptance * It must be accepted * The maker is earlier liable * The drawer is not primarily liable. * It is never drawn in sets * Foreign bills are specially drawn in sets. * Protesting is not necessary after dishonour * A foreign bill must be protested upon dishonor. SOME MORE TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS Bearer Instrument Sec. 13- An instrument which is explicit to be payable to immune carrier or an instrument on which the last endorsement is in blank. Promissory note can not be made payable to bearer.Bill of exchange- can not be made payable to bearer on demand. Order Instrument- An instrument payable to a specified person or his order. Order instrument can be transferred by endorsement and delivery. Based on location- Inland Instrument- A transferable instrument is an inland instrument if, it is draw n or made in India It is payable in India or is drawn on a person resident in India. An inland instrument system inland even if it has been endorsed to a foreign country. Foreign Instrument Sec. 12-A negotiable instrument which is not an inland instrument is called as foreign instrument.Based on payment- Demand Instrument- An instrument which is expressed to be payable on demand. An instrument on which time for payment (i. e. maturity date) is not specified. Time Instrument- An instrument in which time for payment(i. e. maturity date) is specified. A time instrument may be payable- on a particular(prenominal) day or after a specified period or certain period after sight or on mishap of an even which is certain to happen. In sail through / Inchoate Instrument Sec. 20 Conditions for an incipient instrument- (a)A person signs a negotiable instrument. (b)The negotiable instrument is stamped c)The negotiable instrument is either wholly blank or is partially blank. (d)The person signi ng such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) negotiable instrument delivers it to another person. Legal act- The holder gets a prima facie authority to make or complete the negotiable instrument. Liability on an inchoate instrument- Rights of a person to whom an inchoate instrument is delivered He can recover only such totality as he was authorized to fill. Rights of holder in due course He can recover the whole amount express in the instrument, but not exceeding the amount covered by the stamps. Accommodation Bills sec. 43An accommodation bill means a bill which is drawn, accepted without consideration Provision relating to such bills ( a) The accommodated troupe cannot, after he has paid the amount of the bill, recover the amount from any person who become a party to the bill for his accommodation. ( b) The person who become the holder of such a bill in good faith and for consideration, after maturity, may recover the amount from any introductory party. Meanin g of crossing- traverse means a direction given By the drawer of the cheque to the drawee bank, not To pay the cheque at the counter of the bank. The Payment can be collected only though a banker.Types of crossing Sec. 123 to 131 A Nature of crossing Requirements put ups Format commonplace crossing The cheque must contain two parallel Transverse lines The cheque must be paid only to a banker Special crossing The cheque must contain the name of a banker. Special crossing may be made only once Cheque must be paid only to the banker to whom it is crossed. Special crossing can not be converted into general crossing. Not negotiable crossing The cheque must contain the linguistic process not negotiable. The cheque must be crossed generally or specially The cheque nevertheless body negotiable.The title of the transferee shall not be better than the title of the transferor. A/c payee crossing, i. e. restrictive crossing The cheque must contain the lyric A/c payee or A/c payee onl y. The cheque must be crossed Generally or specially The cheque does not remain negotiable anymore. Based on transfer military operation Maturity of a conveyable Instrument Sec. 22 Meaning- It means the date on which the negotiable instrument falls due for payment. Days of grace- A negotiable instrument which is payable otherwise than on demand is entitled to 3 days of grace. Calculation of days of maturity Sec. 3 to 25 CASE DATE OF MATURITY Negotiable instrument payable on a specified day. Specified day + tertiary day Negotiable instrument payable on a verbalize design of days after date Date on which negotiable instrument is Drawn + stated number of days + third day Negotiable instrument payable on a stated number of days after sight Date on which negotiable instrument is presented for sight + stated number of days + 3rd day Negotiable instrument payable on a stated number of days after occurrence of a certain event Date on which such event happens + stated number of days + 3rd day. Negotiable instrument payable on stated number of calendar calendar month after date. Corresponding day of the relevant month (i. e. , date on which negotiable instrument is drawn + stated number of month) + 3rd day Negotiable instrument payable on stated number of month after sight Corresponding day of the relevant month (i. e. , Date on which negotiable instrument is presented for sight + stated number of months) + 3rd day. Negotiable Instrument payable on stated number of months after incident of a certain event Corresponding day of the relevant month (i. . , Date on which such event happens + stated number of months) + 3rd day If the day of maturity of negotiable instrument is a state-supported holiday Immediately preceding business day If the day of maturity of negotiable instrument is an emergency or unforeseen public holiday Immediately succeeding business day Note If in the relevant month, there is no corresponding day, the last day of such month shall be tak en. HOLDER Sec. 8A holder of a negotiable instrument is a person entitled in his own name to the possession there of and to receive or recover the amount due an negotiable instrument from the parties liable on negotiable instrument. HOLDER IN DUE COURSE Sec. 9 A holder in due course is a person who- *must be a holder. *must have become the holder for consideration. *must have obtained the possession of negotiable instrument before maturity. *must have obtained the negotiable instrument in good faith. PRIVILEGES OF A HOLDER IN DUE COURSE * Every prior party to a negotiable instrument is liable to a HDC. A holder who derives title from HDC has the same the right way as that of a HDC. * No prior party can set up a defence that the negotiable instrument was drawn, made or endorsed by him without any consideration. * No prior party can set up a defence that the negotiable instrument was lost or was obtained from him by disrespect or fraud or for an unlawful consideration. Thus, HDC get s a valid title to the negotiable instrument even though the title of the transferor was defective. * No prior party can allege that negotiable instrument was delivered conditionally or for a special conclude only. HDC can claim full amount of the negotiable instrument (but not exceeding the amount covered by the stamp) even though such amount is in excess of the amount authorized by the person delivering an inchoate negotiable instrument. Difference amongst holder and HDC BASIS HOLDER HDC Consideration A person becomes a holder even if he obtains the negotiable instrument without any consideration. A person becomes HDC only if he obtains the negotiable instrument for consideration. Before maturity A person becomes a holder even if he obtains the negotiable instrument after the maturity of the negotiable instrument. A person becomes HDC only if he obtains the negotiable instrument before its maturity. Good Faith A person becomes the holder, even if he does not obtain the negot iable instrument in good faith. HDC, a person who obtain the negotiable instrument on good faith. Privileges A holder is not entitled to the privileges, which are available for HDC. A HDC is entitled to various privileges as specified under the negotiable instrument act, 1881. Right to use A holder can not process all the prior parties. A HDC can sue all the prior parties. negotiation sec 14Meaning Negotiation means transfer of a negotiable instrument to any other person so as to constitute that person the holder of such negotiable instrument. Methods of negotiation *Negotiation by delivery 1. A bearer instrument may be negotiated by delivery. 2. The delivery must be voluntary *Negotiation by endorsement and delivery An order instrument can be negotiated only by way of 1. authorization and 2. Delivery. Endorsement sec 15 When the maker or holder of a negotiable instrument signs the same *otherwise than as such maker *for the purpose of negotiation on the indorse or face thereof or on a slip of paper annexed thereto, *or so sign for the same purpose a stamped paper intended to be unblemished as a negotiable instrument *he is said to endorse the same, and is called the Endorse. The person in whose favour the endorsement made is called Endorsee. issuance OF ENDORSEMENT The endorsement of an instrument, followed by delivery, transfers to the endorsee the property in the instrument with right of further negotiation. TYPES OF ENDORSEMENT 1. Endorsement in blank *Endorsement in blank means an endorsement made by the endorser without writing the name of the endorsement. The instrument is payable to bearer even though primarily payable to order. 2. Endorsement in full Special endorsement means an endorsement made by a holder by- (a)Signing his name and (b)Added a direction to pay the amount to a specified person. 3. Restrictive endorsement *An endorsement which restricts the right of further negotiation is called as restrictive endorsement. 4. partial(p ) endorsement *An endorsement which purports to transfer only a part of the amount of the instrument is called as partial endorsement. Partial endorsement is not valid at law. . Conditional endorsement An endorser may, by express words in the endorsement- (a)Make his liability, or (b)Make the right of endorsee to receive the amount Depend upon the happening of a certain event, although such event may never happen. bankers acceptance Sec. 7 and 86 Meaning of acceptance (sec. 7) (a) The drawee signs the bill and (b) The drawee delivers it to the holder of the bill or the drawee gives notice of acceptance to the holder of the bill. Effect (sec. 7) The drawee becomes the acceptor. Essential of a valid acceptance (sec. ) (a) Written (whether on the face or back of the bill) (b) Signed (signature without the word accepted is also valid) (c) Signing on the bill (d) Delivery or intimation to the holder that the has been accepted. Types of acceptance (sec. 86) (a) General- Acceptance of bill without any qualification. (b) Qualified- Acceptance of bill subject to some qualification (e. g. , evaluate the bill subject to the condition that the payment of bill shall be made only on happening of an event specified there in. Effect of qualified acceptance (sec. 6) (a) The holder may object to the qualified acceptance. In such a case, it shall be treated that the bill is dishonoured due to non- acceptance. (b) He may give his consent to the qualified acceptance. In such a case, all the previous parties, not consenting to it, are carry through. PAYMENT IN DUE COURSE 1. Payment is made as per apparent melodic phrase 2. Payment is made in good faith 3. Payment is made without negligence 4. Payment is made in money only. MATERIAL transmutation Meaning- An vicissitude is called as sensible alteration if it alters- *the character or operation (i. e. he legal effect) of a negotiable instrument, or *the rights and liabilities of the parties to a negotiable instrument. Wha t is material alteration? What is NOT literal allowance? Alteration regarding-(a)Date,(b)Time of payment,(c)Place of payment,(d)Sum payable(e)Opening a crossed cheque,(f)Relationship between parties,(g)Converting an order cheque into a bearer cheque. (a)Filling blank of the instrument,(b)Conversion of blank endorsement into endorsement in full,(c)Crossing of Cheque,(d)Conversion a General Crossing into Special Crossing, like addition of word A/c payee or Not Negotiable. e)Cancelling the word bearer and making cheque payable to order. (f)Alternation made with the consent of the parties. Effect of a material alteration sec. 87 *Any material alteration of a negotiable instrument renders the same void as against any One who is a party there at the time of making such alteration and does not consent thereto. *But, a material alteration is valid, if it was made so as to carry out common intention of the original parties. Negotiation fanny Sec. 90 MeaningWhen an endorser, after he h as negotiated an instrument, again becomes a holder before its maturity, the instrument is said to be negotiated back to that holder. Effect- 1. In a negotiation back, none of the intermediate holder / endorsers is liable to the holder. 2. The general rule, that a holder in due course may sue all prior parties to the instrument does not apply. 3. However, where a prior party has excluded its liability on the instrument and the negotiable instrument is negotiated back to him, he may sue all intermediate endorsers. DISCHARGE OF A NEGOTIABLE INSTRUMENT Payment in due course- A negotiable instrument is discharged if the party primarily liable on the negotiable instrument makes the payment in due course. *When the payment is made, the negotiable instrument must be cancelled or the fact of payment must be recorded negotiable instrument. Cancellation- Where the holder cancels the name of the party primarily liable on the negotiable instrument, with intent to discharge him, the negotiable i nstrument is discharged. kick out- Where the holder releases or renounces his right against the party primarily liable on the negotiable instrument, the negotiable instrument is discharge.Negotiation back- Where a party primarily liable on a negotiable instrument becomes the holders of the negotiable instrument, the negotiable is discharged. DISCHAGE OF A PARTY Sec. 82 to 90 Payment- Payment by a party who is secondarily liable on a negotiable instrument discharges the holder and all parties subsequent to the party making payment of the negotiable instrument. Cancellation- Where the holder cancels the name of any party liable on the negotiable instrument (other than the party primarily liable on the negotiable instrument), such a party and all parties subsequent to him are discharged.Release- Where the holder releases any party liable negotiable instrument (other than the party primarily liable on the negotiable instrument), such a party and all parties subsequent to him are discha rged. Allowing drawee more than 48 hours to accept- All prior parties not consenting to the same are discharged from liability to such holder. Qualified acceptance- Where a holder of the bill consents to qualified acceptance, all the prior parties who did not consent to qualified acceptance are discharge. Material alteration- Every party not consenting to a material alteration negotiable instrument is discharged.Negotiation back- Where a party already liable on the negotiable instrument becomes the holder of negotiable instrument, such a party and all intermediate parties to whom such a party was previously liable shall be discharge. Operation of law- *A party is discharged if the negotiable instrument becomes time barred. *A party is discharged if he is declared as an insolvent by the court. Dishonour by Non- Acceptance sec. 91 A bill is dishonoured by non- acceptance if it is duty presented for acceptance, but the drawee refuses to accept the bill.Cases in which bill are dishonour ed by non- acceptance- (a) When the drawee makes default in acceptance upon being duly required to accept the bill. (b) In case there is two or more drawee who are not partners, if the bills is not accepted by all the drawee. (c) Where the drawee is a untrue person. (d) When the drawee can not be found even after a reasonable search. (e) When the drawee is incompetent to contract. (f) Where the drawee gives a conditional acceptance and the holder does not give his consent to the conditional acceptance.Effect- *The holder gets an immediate right to sue all the prior parties. *He need not wait till the maturity of the bill for it to be dishonoured on presentment for payment. Dishonour by Non- Payment sec. 92 A negotiable instrument is dishonoured by non- payment, when presentment for payment is excused and the instrument remain unpaid after maturity- In case of Default in payment made by Promissory note Maker of the note Bill of Exchange Acceptor of the bill. Cheque Drawee of the C heque.